Publication type
Survey Futures Working Paper Series
Series Number
99
Series
Survey Futures Working Paper Series
Authors
Publication date
November 1, 2025
Summary:
Background: Analyses of sequential mixed-mode survey data can be biased due to non-random selection of participants into mode. Understanding this bias requires knowledge of predictors of mode selection, but research on this is sparse compared with survey non-response. The ‘continuum of resistance’ model of survey response predicts that delayed responders – who, in sequential mixed-mode surveys, use later modes – and non-responders share similar characteristics. If correct, research on non-response could generalize to mode selection.
Methods: We used data from a major UK birth cohort study (the 1958 National Child Development Study) which embedded a sequential web-then-telephone survey at the age 55y sweep. We assessed whether (a) late (telephone) responders and non-responders share characteristics and (b) whether non-response models also predict telephone response. For (a), we calculated univariate descriptive statistics and performed cluster analysis to compare participant characteristics across web, telephone, and non-response group. For (b), we estimated random forest models for non-response and telephone response (conditional on response) then compared predictive accuracy (Area Under the Receiver Operating Characteristic curve [AUC ROC]and Brier scores) when using the non-response model to instead predict telephone response.
Results: Telephone and non-respondents were similar on almost all (measured) characteristics, and dissimilar in most regards to web respondents. Predictions from non-response models had similar predictive accuracy to predictions from models trained on telephone response, specifically – AUC ROC values in hold-out samples were 0.72 (95% CI = 0.70, 0.74) and 0.74 (95% CI = 0.72, 0.75), respectively.
Conclusions: The characteristics of late- and non-responders in a sequential mixed-mode survey were very similar, consistent with the ‘continuum of resistance’ model of survey response. This suggests that research on non-response could transport to understanding mode selection in sequential mixed-mode surveys, though replications in other surveys with different mixed-mode designs is required.
Subjects
Link
https://surveyfutures.net/working-papers/
#588979